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Petrol sniffing, also known as gasoline sniffing, is a dangerous practice that involves inhaling the fumes from gasoline or other volatile petroleum products to achieve a euphoric effect. This harmful behaviour is prevalent in many parts of the world, particularly among young people and Indigenous communities. The global prevalence of petrol sniffing is a growing concern due to its detrimental effects on the health and well-being of individuals who engage in this risky activity.
The prevalence of petrol sniffing varies across different countries and regions, with some areas experiencing higher rates of this behaviour than others. In countries like Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, petrol sniffing has been a significant issue among indigenous populations for decades. Indigenous communities in these countries often face social and economic challenges that contribute to the prevalence of petrol sniffing as a means of coping with stress and trauma.
In Australia, for example, petrol sniffing has been a longstanding issue among Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities, particularly in remote areas where there is limited access to resources and support services. The prevalence of petrol sniffing in these communities has resulted in serious health consequences, including neurological damage, respiratory problems, and even death. In response to this public health crisis, the Australian government has implemented various prevention and intervention measures to address the root causes of petrol sniffing and support those affected by this harmful behaviour.
Similarly, in countries like New Zealand and Canada, petrol sniffing has been a concern among Indigenous youth who face social and economic marginalization. The prevalence of petrol sniffing in these communities has led to health disparities and other negative outcomes that disproportionately affect Indigenous populations. Efforts to address the prevalence of petrol sniffing in these countries have focused on community-based strategies, such as youth programs, education campaigns, and mental health services.
In developing countries, the prevalence of petrol sniffing is also a growing issue, particularly among marginalized and vulnerable populations. In countries like Nigeria, India, and Brazil, petrol sniffing is a common practice among street children and young people living in poverty. The prevalence of petrol sniffing in these countries is fueled by a lack of access to education, economic opportunities, and adequate social support systems.
Overall, the global prevalence of petrol sniffing highlights the need for comprehensive and culturally appropriate approaches to address this harmful behaviour. By understanding the factors contributing to the prevalence of petrol sniffing and implementing targeted interventions, governments and communities can work together to reduce the incidence of this dangerous practice and improve the health and well-being of those affected by petrol sniffing.
Volatile substances, also known as 'inhalants ', are chemical compounds that emit fumes at room temperature. They act as central nervous system depressants, and their use involves intentional inhalation to induce a state of altered consciousness or intoxication. The rapid onset of their effects can be dangerous due to the lungs' quick vapour absorption. It's important to note that approximately 250 household, medical, and industrial products contain potentially intoxicating volatile substances, many of which are easily accessible. These substances are typically classified into four groups.
Solvents - liquids or semi-liquids that vaporise at room temperature, such as glues and petrol.
Gases - medical anaesthetics and fuel gases, such as lighter fuels.
Aerosols - sprays containing propellants and solvents.
Nitrites—amyl nitrite or cyclohexyl nitrite—are found in room deodorisers. Nitrites, however, do not directly affect the central nervous system, and their use occurs primarily for enhancing sexual pleasure rather than intoxication.
Aliphatic, aromatic, or halogenated hydrocarbons are the volatile substances most commonly used for intoxication. These include toluene (found, for example, in glues, spray paints, and unleaded petrol), butane gas (in cigarette lighters), acetone (in nail polish remover), benzene (in petrol and varnish), and propane (in bottled fuel and as aerosol propellant).
The effects of inhaling volatile substances
The effects of VSU need to be considered, including short-term, long-term, and pregnancy effects. Petrol sniffers, in particular, have also been identified as experiencing extreme mood swings and severe depression, but this may be more a consequence of their pre-existing psychological state than petrol per se. The psychoactive effects of inhaling volatile substances occur rapidly but only last for a short period (5-45 minutes after ceasing use). However, the fat-soluble nature of volatile substances means they can be stored in neurological tissue and affect users' level of consciousness for several hours. The most toxic consequence of chronic use is irreversible neurological damage, leading to cognitive impairment. The heart, lungs, liver and kidneys can also be affected, and use during pregnancy can affect the unborn child, with lifelong consequences.
Sudden sniffing death: Some inhalants can also indirectly cause sudden death by cardiac arrest in a syndrome known as 'sudden sniffing death'. The hydrocarbon gases present in the inhalants appear to sensitise the myocardium to adrenaline. In this state, a sudden surge of adrenaline (for example, from a frightening hallucination or pursuit by police) can cause a fatal cardiac arrhythmia.
Asphyxiation: Petrol sniffers can also die as a result of asphyxiation, most commonly from falling asleep with containers against their faces or blankets over their heads or as a result of displacement of oxygen in the lungs by the inhaled petrol vapour. This risk of death applies even to the recently introduced Opal fuel. It is also believed that spraying volatile substances directly into the mouth can cause asphyxia due to the cooling agents in the aerosol propellant freezing the larynx.
Neurological and cognitive impairments: Chronic VSU has been linked to impairments of cognition and neurological damage. These cognitive impairments include changes to attention span and short-term memory, impacting the ability to solve problems and affecting visual-spatial skills.
The severity of these impairments can range from mild impairment to severe dementia. Brain injury associated with VSU appears to be cumulative, but this is contested in the literature. When controlling for socioeconomic disadvantages, one study found that the differences in cognitive skills among those reporting VSU were not statistically significant. Forms of neurological disorders, including Parkinson's disease, appear to be linked to exposure to volatile substances. The neurological damage caused by VSU is considered to be cumulative; chronic, long-term VSU is more likely to cause permanent brain injury or death than infrequent VSU. One study found that the duration of VSU and blood lead levels correlated with the range and severity of cognition impairment and neurological damage. Early studies suggested that brain injury associated with VSU was permanent. However, recent evidence suggests that significant recovery from the effects of VSU is possible where abstinence occurs before the development of cerebellar atrophy. It should be recognised that assessing cognitive and neurological impairment can be difficult in Indigenous Australian communities as the assessment tools used are mainly reliant on a Westernised system and do not take into account significant cultural and language barriers. Therefore, determining the long-term effects of chronic VSU on Indigenous people can be complex.
Prenatal exposure to volatile substances: Volatile substances readily cross the placental barrier because of their fat solubility. Prenatal exposure is associated with low birth weight, prematurity, developmental delays, neurobehavioral problems and physical malformations.
Volatile substance use: A global perspective
Volatile substance use is 'an under-recognised worldwide problem', and its use by young people is second only to cannabis in several countries. A compilation of data from various sources found that significant proportions of people had used a volatile substance at some stage in their lives, with the proportions being highest for Australia, the United Kingdom, the United States, Kenya, Malta and Lithuania. The report acknowledged data limitations but concluded that the use of volatile substances 'is widespread among youth and is reported from every region of the world'. The use of volatile substances is generally seen as higher-than-average among minority and marginalised young people, including Indigenous youth in Australia, New Zealand, the United States and Canada. The relatively high level of VSU in these groups is seen as due to their 'poverty and marginalisation rather than cultural attributes'.
Volatile substance use in Australia
Volatile substance use (VSU) occurs predominantly among young people, both Indigenous and non-Indigenous. In urban settings, inhalation of the vapours from spray paint, or 'chroming', is the most frequent form of VSU for both Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people. Use among the general population of young people has been recorded since the 1970s when a Queensland survey found that 6.5% of school students reported they had used a volatile substance. During the 1990s, VSU in cities and towns became a matter of increasing concern, and several studies documented use by Indigenous and non-Indigenous young people in a range of locations from large cities, such as Brisbane and Perth, to small regional towns, such as Alice Springs and Mount Isa. Indigenous young people in these settings are likely to use volatile substances in greater quantity and for a more extended period. However, non-Indigenous young people have also been identified as chronic users. Marginalised young people, whether Indigenous or non-Indigenous, indicate they use volatile substances as a way of relieving boredom, blocking hunger pains, and coping with emotional distress. Acknowledging that VSU occurs is important because it can be exciting and pleasurable. Many users have commented that they immensely enjoyed the hallucinogenic effects of VSU, reporting hallucinogenic experiences shared within groups of users. In addition, VSU provides a way of communicating identity, control and power. Users of volatile substances frequently seek a non-conformist reputation. In Indigenous communities, sniffing can be one of the few ways a young person can express their power.
This is partly done by controlling their body weight by sniffing to suppress appetite. It is partly through deliberately provoking outrage by their behaviour. Rose considered two general risk factors – social disadvantage and family dysfunction – predictive of VSU. In addition, VSU in Indigenous communities is influenced by cultural and situational circumstances, including:
• degree of community cohesion
• Cultural identification
• Numbers engaged in use
• local patterns of use
• access to resources and supports
• other local influences
This provides a way of understanding Indigenous VSU that goes beyond individual pathology and takes account of community-level stress and the broader social and cultural impact of the dispossession and dislocation that has occurred since European colonisation. Petrol sniffing remains the most prevalent form of VSU by Indigenous people living in remote communities. This form of VSU has happened in some Northern Territory Indigenous communities since the early 1940s. One theory ascribes its introduction to American service members stationed in the Territory during the Second World War. This is supported by testimony from the Legislative Assembly of the Northern Territory Select Committee on Substance Abuse. A man from the Mutitjulu community, who grew up in Eastern Arnhem Land during World War II, reported American service members stationed on an airstrip there sniffing petrol. He recounted how he and others of his generation had 'socially' sniffed petrol.
On the other hand, Brady is very sceptical about this theory, quoting a person stationed at one of the communities at the time who rejected the idea. Unlike much urban VSU, which tends to be experimental, transitory use by younger adolescents, petrol sniffing in remote communities starts at a younger age and continues for a more extended period. Most Indigenous petrol sniffers are between eight and 30 years of age, with a concentration in the 12-19 year age range, although there have been reports of sniffers as young as five years old. One study reported that the mean duration of use was eight years, which means Indigenous petrol sniffers are at considerable risk of becoming chronic users as they get older.
Prevalence of use
A recurring comment from researchers and service providers concerns the lack of prevalence data on volatile substance use. There are two regular national surveys of drug use, the National Drug Strategy Household Survey (NDSHS) and the Australian School Students Alcohol and Drugs (ASSAD) Survey, but each has its limitations in terms of providing an accurate picture of use. The issue of age and Indigenous status are important factors when assessing the accuracy of survey data on volatile substance use, and there are substantial areas for improvement in both surveys on each count. The 2007 NDSHS indicated that 3.1% of Australians aged 14 years or older had ever used a volatile substance, but it provided no breakdown as to Indigenous status. The survey also only reported volatile substances by those 14 years and older. This means that use by younger adolescents, known to comprise a substantial portion of total use, has been omitted. The 2005 ASSAD survey collected information on VSU from students as young as 12, the peak age for recent use. In this age group, 6.4% had used in the previous week. Recent use progressively dropped in older age groups such that by 17 years, only 2.1% had used in the last week.
Problems associated with volatile substance use
The users themselves do not just experience the problems associated with VSU by Indigenous people; problems cascade to their families, their local community and the wider society. The issues are not experienced in all cases and may be co-occurring rather than caused by VSU. In Indigenous communities, it is essential to look beyond the health consequences of VSU for the individual user to the broader social costs. A study of petrol sniffing in a Pitjantjatjara community found that many chronic sniffers were socially isolated. They lived outside their families in gangs that perpetrated much of the crime in the community. The burden on families, many already suffering hardship, can be enormous emotionally and financially. Parents typically feel helpless to stop the use, while at the same time, they often have to look after a son or daughter who is becoming increasingly debilitated. VSU can create intense and unrelenting disruption in remote Indigenous communities out of all proportion to the number of users. Property crime, violence, friction between families, physical and mental health problems and youth suicides often accompany VSU. Constantly coping with these problems debilitates a community, sapping its ability to function cohesively. VSU is also a drain on wider Australian society in that it decreases productivity, and the resultant problems require the intervention of various government services.
In 2005, the estimated total cost of petrol sniffing in Central Australia was $78.9 million, which included the following significant component costs:
• $38.1 million cost of burden of disease
• $16.2 million in crime and judicial costs
• $8.3 million loss of productivity
• $4.2 million long-term care
• $4.1 million health costs
• $3.7 million rehabilitation
Morbidity and mortality
There is no systematic collection of VSU-associated mortality or morbidity data in Australia at the national, state, or territory levels. Users typically present to health facilities with illnesses, such as pneumonia, or injuries, such as burns, which VSU causes, but the record only reflects the presenting problem. Similarly, in the case of deaths, the practice is to list the medical explanation rather than the use of volatile substances that led to it. For example, the cause of death of a chronic petrol sniffer may be recorded as end-stage renal failure rather than the petrol sniffing that precipitated the renal failure. Some state-wide data estimate the morbidity associated with VSU. Victoria data collected on drug use and harm in 2003-04 indicated that VSU was the main presenting drug problem in 1.5% (726) of clients undertaking courses of treatment delivered by specialist alcohol and drug services. In the same year, 35 VSU-related hospitalisations resulted in 214 bed days. In WA, between 1994 and 2000, there was an average of 32 VSU-related hospital admissions per year.
To Your Health,
Nwabekee.
Reference
Midford R, MacLean S, Catto M, Thomson N, Debuyst O (2011) Review of volatile substance use among Indigenous people. Australian Indigenous HealthInfoNet.
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